Translation and Transmission

We have already talked about the importance of language in the late middle age setting, be it Petrarch’s preference of Latin over Dante’s Italian or Chaucer confused renderings of Horace’s Epistles. The language of the literature we read is vital to our understanding of the message that is being conveyed in the artwork. Often the form of expression is the message. In the hands of a wrong translation, what is meant to be a subtle tongue and smooth rhythm can become harsh and granulated when left in the wrong hands. Yet translation also has the benefit of dispensing precious works to a wider audience, its explosive tendency to reach new frontiers of thinkers is invaluable. It must be done, but it must be done well. It is an art in and of itself.

Translation is one of the three channels through which classical influence can flow. These channels are:

1. Translation
2. Imitation
3. Emulation

As first of these channels, it may not create great works but it does allow great works to be created. We have been translating the classics since 250BC, when the half-Greek half-Roman poet Livius Andronicus turned Homer’s Odyssey into Latin. The Greeks new literature in no language but their own, but the Romans were at their cultural ascendancy when Greek was flourishing as a spoken and artistic language amongst the upper echelons of society. Europe, emerging from the Dark ages, developed its own bilingualism and by the Renaissance the emerging figure of the wandering artiste would hold many tongues in his locker. European culture was deepening and broadening. What was important the this traveller is that on his voyages he would be stimulated by the Graeco-Roman synthesis that would sweep him from land to land. It would have been a similar feeling that Romans would have received when learning and travelling to

through Greek lands. To help with expressing this feeling of synthesis, many translators imported Latin and Greek words directly into the modern language of choice. The result was a new tray of rich and elegant words that carried a resonance of beauty and awe.

In French there was, by the fourteenth century, a deliberate policy of borrowing words to increase the scope of the language, as part of the cultural achievements of Charles V. (r. 1364-1380), whose most important protégé in enacting his will was Nicole Oresme (c.1330-1381), later Bishiop of Lisieux. He took the 1280 Latin Aristotelian renderings of William of Moerbeke and turned them to French. Oresme would complain that Homo, which could mean man or woman, had no equivalent in French, and animal, meaning anything that had a soul capable of perception, would not fit neatly either. Words taken from Latin and Greek fell into two main classes:

1. Abstract Nouns
2. Technical artistic phrases

In the former we find a host of examples: circulation, décision, hésitation, calamité , spécialité, arrogant, évidence. In the latter words such as acte, artiste, démocratie, facteur, médicin.

The English language had been drawing Latin and Greek influence as far back as the Dark Ages, particularly religious terms: Church, priest and bishop come from Greek. Later English came under the Latin influence through its French connection – its nobles had spoken French from the time of the Norma conquest until the hundred years war and were not immune to the effect of the broadening of the French vernacular. Chaucer also introduced many phrases from his knowledge of Latin and French, for instance ignorance and absence were softened from the Latin because of French intrusion.

Chaucer would also translate Boethius, leading to many Latin terms finding their way into philosophical and scholarly phrases: orator, distil, astrologer to name but a few.

Spanish underwent a similar expansion under the influence of Italian culture. Again it was abstract nouns such as ambición, comendación, and servitude that came from Latin, words such as idiota, paradoja from Greek. The Spanish went further than English or French in some ways, adopting Greek and Latin syntactical patterns as seen in Góngora. Other languages such as German, Polish, and Magyar carried on largely untouched during this period. They still had Latin writers, but few who filled the role of bridging the Graeco-Roman and native cultural divide. Authors were either wholly German or wholly Latin. England had Chaucer and Gower, Spain had Inigo Lopez de Mendoza and Juan de Mena, France had countless others. In order for a true Renaissance to occur, it was requisite that channels existed that the two cultures could intermingle.

Let us move our attention away from words to rhythm and meter. Greek and Latin rhythm came in the form of hexameters (for epics) and iambic trimeter (for drama). The Italian response to these was to write in free verse, so as to continue the flow of words as in the original. In translating prose, style came across more readily, many household techniques – the climax, the antithesis, the apostrophe – came into use form classical translations. One of the more famous techniques that flourished was the use of the Ciceronian tricolon, or group of three. They are usually expressions or examples

illustrating a consistent pattern of thought and are measured in weight and importance. The number of speakers is an endless list, so the famous example of Abraham Lincoln in his Gettysburg Address should suffice:

‘A government of the people, by the people, for the people’

Lincoln is a perfect example of how prevalent the technique had become by his time: he had not read Cicero directly, but had picked up on the phraseology by studying the baroque writers such as Gibbon. In fact, using the Ciceronian tricolon has become somewhat of a tradition, another famous example being Franklin D Roosevelt’s ‘one-third of a nation, ill-housed, ill-clad, ill-nourished’.

Before we get into our list of important translated works and their translators, it is worth mentioning the phenomenal effect of printing. It distributed culture quicker and made self-education easier. French led the way in terms of translations, with Germany and England second, Italy and Spain notable others. Italy ranks low here as many Italians remained devoted to Latin, or were translating from Greek into Latin, rather than Italian. Another important factor in slowing output was pedantry in the translation. If never satisfied with your work, it would never be completed. Hence, we can say admirably of Shakespeare ‘he never blotted a line’, which no doubt led to his enormous productivity. The fact that Germany remained void of the correct character to bridge the literature of antiquity to a modern audience is typified by the fact that, until 1691, were still printing more books in Latin than in German each year, and people such as Reuchlin who knew Greek were isolated figures. At least Germany had elevated itself from due contact with Italy and the budding low countries. Countries further afield – to the North and East, were still sunk in medieval darkness.

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The below table has been constructed to illustrate the level of translations into modern languages occurring in Europe during the Renaissance. The list is not exhaustive.

Literary Category	Classical Author	Classical Work	Translated Language	Translator	Year	Comment
Epic	Homer	The Iliad	Spanish	Inigo Lopez de Mendoza	1445	Partial translation
Epic	Homer	The Iliad	French	Jean Samxon	1530	Influence of Dares and Dictys
Epic	Homer	The Odyssey	German	Simon Schaidenreisser	1537	Prose translation
Epic	Homer	The Iliad	French	Hugues Salel Amadis Jamyn	1545 & 1577	First serious verse rendering, Books I-X by Salel, finished by Jamyn
Epic	Homer	The Odyssey	French	Jacques Peletier du Mans	1547	Books I-II
Epic	Homer	The Iliad	English	Arthur Hall	1581	Translated via Salel’s version
Epic	Homer	The Iliad, The Odyssey, & the Hymns	English	George Chapman	1611, 1614 & 1616	First complete poetic translation of Homer in any tongue
Epic	Homer	The Odyssey	Italian	Ludovico Dolce	1573	Muted translation into stanzas
Epic	Homer	The Iliad	Italian	Girolamo Bacelli	1581-2	Book I-VII
Epic	Homer	The Iliad	German	Johann Spreng	1610	First verse version in German
Epic	Virgil	The Aeneid	Gaelic	unknown	Before 1400	Imtheachta Aeniasa in the Book of Ballymote
Epic	Virgil	The Aeneid	French	Guillaume Leroy	15th Century	Prose translation
Epic	Virgil	The Aeneid	Spanish	Enrique de Villena	15th Century	Prose translation
Epic	Virgil	The Aeneid	French	Octovien de Saint-Gelais	c. 1500	First regular verse translation
Epic	Virgil	The Aeneid	German	T Murner	1515
Epic	Virgil	The Aeneid	English	Earl of Surrey	1553	Books II & IV – using an earlier attempt by Scot Gawain Douglas as inspiration
Epic	Virgil	The Aeneid	French	Du Bellay	1551 & 1561	Books IV and VI
Epic	Virgil	The Aeneid	French	Desmasures	1560	First translation of whole poem
Epic	Virgil	The Aeneid	French	Antoine & Robert Le Chevalier d’Agneaux	1582
Epic	Virgil	The Aeneid	English	Phaer & Twyne	1558 & 1573	Books I-VII (Phaer), book VIII-XII (Twyne)
Epic	Virgil	The Aeneid	Spanish	Cristobal de Mesa	16th Century
Epic	Virgil	The Aeneid	German	Johann Spreng	~1601
Epic	Virgil	The Aeneid	Italian	Annibale Caro	1581	A Long famous translation
Epic	Virgil	The Aeneid	English	Richard Stanyhurst	1582	Book I-IV
Epic	Lucan	Pharsalia	French	unknown	14th Century	Composed for Charles V
Epic	Lucan	Pharsalia	Spanish	Unknown poet of Cordoba	1541	Published in Lisbon by Martin Laso de Oropesa
Epic	Lucan	Pharsalia	English	Christopher Marlow	1593	Book I
Epic	Lucan	Pharsalia	English	Sir A Gorges	1614	Complete translation
Epic	Lucan	Pharsalia	English	T May	1626	A more successful translation than Gorges
Epic	Lucan	Pharsalia	Spanish	Juan de Jauregui y Aguilar	17th Century
Epic	Ovid	Metamorphoses	French	Bercoir	1362	Building on previous work mentioned earlier
Epic	Ovid	Metamorphoses	English	Caxton	1480	Via Bercoir’s translation
Epic	Ovid	Metamorphoses	French	Clement Marot & Habert	1532 & 1557	Books I & II – Marot Book II-XV – Habert
Epic	Ovid	Metamorphoses	German	Hieronymous Boner	1534
Epic	Ovid	Metamorphoses	English	Arrhut Golding	1567	Known to Shakespear
History	Herodotus	The Histories	Latin	Valla	1452-57
History	Herodotus	The Histories	Italian	Boiardo	15th Century
History	Herodotus	The Histories	French	Pierre Saliat	1556
History	Herodotus	The Histories	English	‘B.R.’	1584
History	Herodotus	The Histories	German	H Boner	1535
History	Thucydides	The Peloponnesian War	Latin	Valla	1452	The basis for translation into modern languages
History	Thucydides	The Peloponnesian War	French	Claude de Seyssel, Bishop of Marseille	1512
History	Thucydides	The Peloponnesian War	German	H Boner	1533
History	Thucydides	The Peloponnesian War	Italian	Francisco de Soldo Strozzi	1545
History	Thucydides	The Peloponnesian War	English	Thomas Nichols	1550	Via de Seyssel’s tranlsation
History	Thucydides	The Peloponnesian War	Spanish	Diego Gracián	1564
History	Xenophon	Anabasis	French	De Seyssel	1504
History	Xenophon	Anabasis	German	H Boner	1540
History	Xenophon	Anabasis	Italian	R Domenichi	1548
History	Xenophon	Anabasis	Spanish	Diego Gracián	1552
History	Xenophon	Anabasis	English	J Bingham	1623
History	Plutarch	Parallel Lives	Latin	Guarino	15th Century
History	Plutarch	Parallel Lives	French	B Jaconello	1482	26 volumes
History	Plutarch	Parallel Lives	German	H Boner	1534 & 1541	8 volumes in 1534, completed 1541
History	Plutarch	Parallel Lives	Spanish	Alfonso de Palencia	1491
History	Plutarch	Parallel Lives	French	Lazare de Baif, George de Selve, Arnault Chandon, Jacque Amyot	1530-1559	Amyot issued the complete version of the Lives in 1559 – heavily influenced Montaigne
History	Plutarch	Parallel Lives	English	Thomas North	1579	Influenced by Amyot, he influenced Shakespeare in turn
History	Caesar	Memoirs	French	unknown	14th Century	Translated for Charles V
History	Caesar	Gallic War	German	M Ringmann Philesius	1507
History	Caesar	Gallic War	English	W Rastell, J Brend, Golding	1530-1565	Golding produced the completed version
History	Sallust & Suetonius	Complete Works	French	unknown	15th Century	Produced for Charles V
History	Sallust	Complete Works	Spanish	Francisco Vidal de Noya	1493
History	Sallust	Complete Works	German	D von Pleningen J Vielfeld	1513 & 1530
History	Sallust	Complete Works	French	Meigret	16th Century
History	Sallust	Catiline Conspiracy	English	T Paynell	1541
History	Sallust	Jurgurtha	English	A Barclay	1520-3
History	Sallust	Complete Works	English	Tomas Heywood	1608
History	Livy	His then known works	French	Bercoir	14th Century
History	Livy	His then known works	Spanish	Pedro Lopez de Ayala	14th Century	Chancellor of Castille (1332-14-07)
History	Livy	His then known works	German	B Schöfferlin J Wittig N Carbach	1505 1523
History	Livy	Complete Works Known	English	Philemon Holland	1600
History	Tacitus	His then known works	German	Micyllus	1535
History	Tacitus	Annals	French	Étienne de la Planche, Claude Fauchet	1548   1582	Annals 1-6   Annals 11-16
History	Tacitus	Histories & Agricola	English	Sir Henry Savile	1591
History	Tacitus	Annals & Germany	English	R Greneway	1598
Philosophy	Plato	Complete Works	Latin	Ficino	1482	Made for the Medici Dynasty
Philosophy	Plato	Axiochus	English	De Mornay	1592	First English translation
Philosophy	Plato	Lysis	French	Bonaventure de Périers	1541
Philosophy	Plato	Crito	French	P du Val	1547
Philosophy	Plato	Ion	French	Richard de Blanc	1546
Philosophy	Plato	Defence of Socrates	French	F Hotman	1549
Philosophy	Plato	Timaeus	French	Loys le Roy	1551
Philosophy	Plato	Phaedo	French	Loys le Roy	1553
Philosophy	Plato	Symposium	French	Loys le Roy	1559
Philosophy	Plato	The Republic	French	Loys le Roy	1600	Year Published
Philosophy	Plato	Axiochus	French	Étienne Dolet	1546
Philosophy	Plato	Hipparchus	French	Étienne Dolet	1546
Philosophy	Aristotle	Politics	French	Nicolas Oresme	1486
Philosophy	Aristotle	Politics	French	Loys le Roy	1568	Superseding Oresme’s tranlsation
Philosophy	Aristotle	Politics	Italian	A Bruccioli	1547
Philosophy	Aristotle	Politics	English	‘J.D.’	1598	Via Le Roy’s translation
Philosophy	Aristotle	Ethics	French	unknown	15th Century	On the behest of Charles V
Philosophy	Aristotle	Ethics	French	Loys le Roy	16th Century
Philosophy	Aristotle	Ethics	Spanish	Carlos de Viana	15th Century
Philosophy	Aristotle	Ethics	English	J Wylkinson	1547	Based on medieval Italian renderings of Brunetto Latini
Philosophy	Plutarch	On Education	English	Sir Thomas Elyot	1530
Philosophy	Plutarch	On peace of mind	English	Wyat	1528	Made use of Bude’s Latin version
Philosophy	Plutarch	On Preserving Health	English	Wyer	1530	Use of Erasmus’ Latin version
Philosophy	Plutarch	4 Moral Essays	English	Bludeville	1558-1561
Philosophy	Plutarch	Complete Moral Essyas	German	M Herr & H von Eppendorf	1535
Philosophy	Plutarch	Complete Moral Essays	German	W Xylander Jonas Löchinger	1580
Philosophy	Plutarch	Complete Moral Essays	French	Jacque Amyot	1572
Philosophy	Plutarch	Complete Moral Essays	English	Philemon Holland	1603
Philosophy	Cicero	On Friendship	French	Laurent Premierfait	Before 1418
Philosophy	Cicero	On Old Age	French	Laurent Premierfait	Before 1418
Philosophy	Cicero	On Friendship	English	John Tiptoft	1460	Printed by Caxton in 1481, based in the Premierfait translation
Philosophy	Cicero	On Old Age	English	Caxton	1481	Based in the Premierfait translation
Philosophy	Cicero	The German Cicero	German	Johann Freiherr zu Schwarzenberg	1534	Also contained the Tusculan Discussions
Philosophy	Cicero	3 Dialogues	French	Jean Colin	1537-9
Philosophy	Cicero	On Friendship	English	John Harington	1550
Philosophy	Cicero	On Old Age	English	R Whittington	1535
Philosophy	Cicero	On Friendship On Old Age	English	Thomas Newton	1577
Philosophy	Cicero	On Duties	German	Schwarzenberg	1531	Built on an anonymous translation of 1488
Philosophy	Cicero	On Duties	English	Whittington	1540
Philosophy	Cicero	On Duties	English	Nicolas Grimald	1553
Philosophy	Cicero	Tusculan Discussions	French	Étienne Dolet	1542	Books I-III
Philosophy	Cicero	Tusculan Discussions	English	John Dolman	1561
Philosophy	Cicero	Paradoxes	German	Schaidenreisser	1538
Philosophy	Cicero	Paradoxes	English	Whittington	1540
Philosophy	Cicero	Paradoxes Dream of Scipio	English	Thomas Newton	1569
Philosophy	Seneca	Letters	Latin	Erasmus	1515
Philosophy	Seneca	Letters	German	Michael Herr	1536
Philosophy	Seneca	Consolation to Marcia	German	Dietrich von Pleningen	1519
Philosophy	Seneca	On Benefits	English	Arthur Golding	1577
Philosophy	Seneca	Complete Works	English	Lodge	1614
Drama	Sophocles	Electra	Spanish	Fernan Perez de Oliva	1525	Known as Revenge for Agamemnon
Drama	Sophocles	Electra	French	Lazare de Baif	1537
Drama	Sophocles	Antigone	French	Jean-Antoine de Baif	1573
Drama	Sophocles	Antigone	Italian	Alamanni	1533
Drama	Sophocles	Antigone	English	Thomas Watson	1581
Drama	Euripides	Hecuba, Medea, Iphigenia at Aulis, The Phoenician Women	Italian	Lodovico Dolce	1545-1551
Drama	Euripides	Hecuba	Spanish	Fernan Perez de Oliva	1528
Drama	Euripides	Hecuba	French	Bochetel, Amyot	1544
Drama	Euripides	Iphigenia at Aulis	French	Thomas Sébillet	1549
Drama	Euripides	Iphigenia at Aulis	German	Michael Babst	c. 1604
Drama	Euripides	The Phoenician Women	English	Francis Kinwelmersh	1566
Drama	Aristophanes	Plutus	French	Ronsard	1550
Drama	Aristophanes	Plutus	Spanish	Pedro Simon de Abril	1577
Drama	Plautus	Numerous	Italian	Numerous	c. 1486	The Court of Ferrara
Drama	Plautus	Amphitryon	Spanish	Francisco Lopez de Villalobos	1515
Drama	Plautus	The Brothers Menaechmus	English	‘W.W’	1595	Possibly to the benefit of Shakespeare’s Comedy of Errors
Drama	Plautus	The Bacchides	German	Albrecht von Eyb	1511	Year Published
Drama	Plautus	The Pot Comedy	German	Joachim Greff	1535
Drama	Plautus	Stichius	German	C Freyssleben	1539
Drama	Plautus	The Brothers Menaechmus	German	Jonas Bitner	1570
Drama	Terence	Numerous	French	Guillaume Rippe Gilles Cybille	1500
Drama	Terence	The Eunuch	German	Hans Nythart	1486
Drama	Terence	Complete Works	German	Brant & Locher	1499
Drama	Terence	Complete Works	German	Valentin Boltz	1539	Prose Version
Drama	Terence	Complete Works	German	Johannes Bischoff	1566	Rhymed Version
Drama	Terence	Complete Works	French	C Estienne J Bourlier	1566
Drama	Terence	Complete Works	Spanish	Pedro Simon de Abril	1577
Drama	Terence	Complete Works	English	Richard Bernard	1598
Drama	Seneca	Medea Thyestes The Trojan Woman	Catalan	Antonio Vilaragut	c. 1400
Drama	Seneca	Ten Tragedies	English	6 separate translators	1559-1581	Influential publication
Drama	Seneca	Numerous works	Italian	Dolce	c. 1550
Drama	Seneca	Agamemnon	French	Charles Toutain	1557
Drama	Seneca	Agamemnon	French	Le Duchat	1561
Drama	Seneca	The Madness of Hercules, Thyestes, Agamemnon	French	Roland Brisset	1590
Drama	Seneca	Complete Tragedies	French	Benoit Bauduyn	1629
Oratory	Demosthenes	Olynthiacs	French	Loys le Roy	1551
Oratory	Demosthenes	Olynthiacs	English	T Wilson	1570	Used as propaganda against Philip of Spain
Oratory	Demosthenes	Philippics	German	H Boner	1543
Oratory	Demosthenes	Philippics	French	Loys le Roy	1575
Oratory	Isocrates	To Nicocles	German	J Altensteig	1517
Oratory	Isocrates	To Nicocles	English	Sir Thomas Elyot	1531
Oratory	Isocrates	To Demonicus	German	W Pirckheimer	1519
Oratory	Isocrates	To Demonicus	English	Bury Nuttall	1557 1585
Oratory	Isocrates	Nicocles	French	L Meigret	1544
Oratory	Isocrates	To Nicocles, To Demonicus, Nicocles	French	Loys le Roy	1551
Oratory	Isocrates	To Nicocles, To Demonicus, Nicocles	English	T Forrest	1580
Oratory	Cicero	Speeches	French	Macault	1548
Oratory	Cicero	Speech for Marcellus	English	R Sherry	1555
Oratory	Cicero	Speech for Marcellus	German	C Bruno	1542
Oratory	Cicero	Speech for Archias	English	T Drant	1571
Oratory	Cicero	Speeches for Marcellus, Ligarius, and King Deiotarus	Italian	Brunetto Latini	15th Century
Smaller Works	Aristotle	Poetics	Italian	Bernardo Segni	1549
Smaller Works	Aristotle	Poetics	Italian	Lodovico Castelvetro	1570	With added commentary
Smaller Works	Theocritus	Idylls	Italian	Annibale Caro	1588	Later anonymously adapted to English
Smaller Works	Lucian	Dialogues of the Dead	Italian	Lapaccini	1495	Also popular in Germany with 11 translations
Smaller Works	Lucian	Various dialogues	French	Tory	1529
Smaller Works	Lucian	Menippus	English	Rastell	c. 1536
Smaller Works	Lucian	The Cynic	English	Elyot	c. 1535
Smaller Works	Lucian	Toxaris	English	‘A.O’	1565
Smaller Works	Anonymous	Daphnis and Chloe	Italian	Anniable Caro	16th Century
Smaller Works	Anonymous	Daphnis and Chloe	French	Amyot	1559
Smaller Works	Anonymous	Daphnis and Chloe	English	Day	1587
Smaller Works	Anonymous	Aethiopica	French	Amyot	1547
Smaller Works	Anonymous	Aethiopica	English	James Sandford Thomas Underdown	1567-9	Based on a Latin version by Pole Stanislas Warshewiczki
Smaller Works	Cicero	Correspondences	French	Dolet	1542
Smaller Works	Cicero	Correspondences	French	F de Belleforest	1566
Smaller Works	Virgil	Bucolics	Spanish	Juan del Enzina	1492-6
Smaller Works	Virgil	Georgics	Spanish	Cristobal de Mesa	1600
Smaller Works	Virgil	Georgics	Italian	Bernardo Pulci	1481
Smaller Works	Virgil	Bucolics & Georgics	French	Michel Guillaume de Tours	1516-9
Smaller Works	Virgil	Bucolics	German	Stephan Riccius	1567
Smaller Works	Virgil	Bucolics Georgics	English	Abraham Fleming	1575, 1589
Smaller Works	Horace	Odes	Spanish	Luis de Leon	16th Century
Smaller Works	Horace	Odes	French	Mondot	1579
Smaller Works	Horace	Odes	Italian	Giorgino	1595
Smaller Works	Horace	Epistle – Art of Poetry	Italian	Dolce	1535
Smaller Works	Horace	Epistle – Art of Poetry	French	Grandichan Peletier du Mans	1541 1544
Smaller Works	Horace	Epistle – Art of Poetry	Spanish	Luis Zapata	1592
Smaller Works	Horace	Epistle – Art of Poetry	English	T Drant	1567
Smaller Works	Horace	Satires	Italian	Dolce	1559
Smaller Works	Horace	Satires	French	Habert	1549
Smaller Works	Horace	Epistles	French	‘G.T.P.’	1584
Smaller Works	Ovid	Heroides & Loves	French	Various Translators	1500-09
Smaller Works	Ovid	Heroides	English	Turberville	1567
Smaller Works	Ovid	Tristia	English	Thomas Churchyard	1572
Smaller Works	Ovid	Loves	English	Christopher Marlow	1597
Smaller Works	Persius	Satires	French	Abel Foulon Guillaume Durand	1544 1575
Smaller Works	Persius	Satires	Italian	Antonio Vallone	1576
Smaller Works	Persius	Satires	English	Barten Holyday	1616
Smaller Works	Pliny	Natural History	French	Pierre de Changi	1551
Smaller Works	Pliny	Natural History	English	‘I. A.’	1566
Smaller Works	Martial	Epigrams	French	Clément Marot	16th Century
Smaller Works	Juvenal	Satires	Italian	G Summaripa	1475
Smaller Works	Juvenal	Satire 10	Spanish	Geronimo de Villegas	1515
Smaller Works	Juvenal	Satire	English	‘W.B.’	1617
Smaller Works	Juvenal	Staires 8,10,11,13	French	Michel d’Ambyose	1544
Smaller Works	Apuleius	Metamorphoses	Italian	Boiardo	15th Century
Smaller Works	Apuleius	Metamorphoses	French	Guillaume Michel	16th Century
Smaller Works	Apuleius	Metamorphoses	German	Johann Sieder	16th Century
Smaller Works	Apuleius	Metamorphoses	English	William Adlington	1566